Abstract:This paper surveys the current status and characteristics of passive dynamic walking.The mechanical structures and driving system designs of several passive walking robots are given.The research methods for the stability,energy efficiency and control scheme of passive bipeds are overviewed.To conclude,this paper points out the main difficulties and the future works in this field.
[1] Huang Q,Yokoi K,Kajita S,et al.Planning walking patterns for a biped robot[J].IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation,2001,17(3):280-289.
[2] 伍科布拉托维奇.步行机器人和动力型假肢[M].北京:科学出版社,1988.
[3] Ishida T.Development of a small biped entertainment robot QRIO[A].Proceedings of the 2004 International Symposium on MicroNanoMechatronics and Human Science[C].New York,NY,USA:IEEE,2004.23-28.
[4] Sakagami Y,Watanabe R,Aoyama C,et al.The intelligent ASIMO:system overview and integration[A].Proceedings of the IEEEInternational Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems[C].Piscataway,NJ,USA:IEEE,2002.2478-2483.
[5] Hirai K,Hirose M,Haikawa Y,et al.Development of Honda humanoid robot[A].Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation[C].Piscataway,NJ,USA:IEEE,1998.1321-1326.
[6] McGeer T.Passive dynamic walking[J].The International Journal of Robotics Research,1990,9(2):62-82.
[7] Collins S,Ruina A,Tedrake R,et al.Efficient bipedal robots based on passive-dynamic walkers[J].Science,2005,307(5712):1082-1085.
[8] Wisse M,Schwab A L,Linde R Q V.A 3D passive dynamic biped with yaw and roll compensation[J].Robotica,2001,19(3):275-284.
[9] McGeer T.Passive walking with knees[A].Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Robotics and Automation[C].Piscataway,NJ,USA:IEEE,1990.1640-1645.
[10] McGeer T.Passive bipedal running[J].Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B,Biological Sciences,1990,240(1297):107-134.
[11] Asano F,Yamakita M,Kamamichi N,et al.A novel gait generation for biped walking robots based on mechanical energy constraint[J].IEEE Transactions on Robotics,2004,20(3):565-573.
[12] Pratt J,Pratt G.Exploiting natural dynamics in the control of a planar bipedal walking robot[J].Proceedings of the Thirty-Sixth Annual Allerton Conference on Communication,Control and Computing[C].Urbana,IL,USA:University of Illinois,1998.739-748.
[13] Collins S H,Ruina A.A bipedal walking robot with efficient and human-like gait[A].Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Robotics and Automation[C].Piscataway,NJ,USA:IEEE,2005.1983-1988.
[14] Tedrake R,Zhang T W,Seung H S.Stochastic policy gradient reinforcement learning on a simple 3D biped[A].Proceedings of the IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems[C].New York,NY,USA:IEEE,2004.2849-2854.
[15] Wisse M.Essentials of Dynamic Walking:Analysisand Design of Two-Legged Robots[D].Netherlands:TU Delft,2004.
[16] Wisse M,van Frankenhuyzen J.Design and construction of MIKE;a 2D autonomous biped based on passive dynanic walking[A].Proceedings of the International Symposium on Adaptive Motions of Animals and Machines[C].Tokyo,Japan:Springer-Verlag,2003.143-154.
[17] Wisse M,Schwab A L,van der Helm F C T.Passive dynamic walking model with upper body[J].Robotica,2004,22(6):681-688.
[18] Wisse M.Three additions to passive dynamic walking; actuation,an upper body,and 3 D stability[A].Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Humanoid Robots[C].New York,NJ,USA:IEEE,2004.113-132.
[19] Schuitema E,Hobbelen D G E,Jonker P P,et al.Using a controller based on reinforcement learning for a passive dynamic walking robot[A].Proceedings of the IEEE/RAS International Conference on Humanoid Robots[C].New York,NY,USA:IEEE,2005.232-237.
[20] Garcia M,Chatterjee A,Ruina A.Speed,efficiency,and stability of small-slope 2D passive dynamic bipedal walking[A].Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation[C].Piscataway,NJ,USA:IEEE,1998.2351-2356.
[21] Chatterjee A,Garcia M.Small slope implies low speed for McGeer's passive walking machines[J].Dynamics and Stability of Systems,2000,15(2):139-157.
[22] Wisse M,Schwab A L,van der Linde R Q,et al.How to keep from falling forward:elementary swing leg action for passive dynamic walkers[J].IEEE Transactions on Robotics,2005,21(3):393-401.
[23] Srinivasan M,Ruina A.Computer optimization of a minimal biped model discovers walking and running[J].Nature,2006,439(7072):72-75.
[24] Gordon K E,Ferris D P,Kuo A D.Reducing vertical center of mass movement during human walking doesn't necessarily reduce metabolic cost[A].Proceedings of the 27th Annual Meeting of American Society of Biomechanics[C].American Society of Biomechanics,Toledo,Ohio,2003.http://www-personal.engin.umich.edu/~artkuo/Papers/ASB03GordonPoster.pdf.
[25] Kuo A D,Donelan J M,Ruina A.Energetic consequences of walking like an inverted pendulum:step-to-step transitions[J].Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews,2005,33(2):88-97.
[26] Zajac F.Muscle and tendon:properties,models,scaling and application to biomechanics and motor control[J],CRC Critical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering,1989,17(4):359-411.
[27] Endo G,Morimoto J,Nakanishi J,et al.An empirical exploration of a neural oscillator for biped locomotion control[A].Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation[C].Piscataway,NJ,USA:IEEE,2004.3036-3042.
[28] Nakanishi J,Morimoto J,Endo G,et al.An empirical exploration of phase resetting for robust biped locomotion with dynamical movement primitives[A].Proceedings of the IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems[C].New York,NY,USA:IEEE,2004.919-924.
[29] Morimoto J,Nakanishi J,Endo E,et al.Poincaré-map-based reinforcement learning for biped walking[A].Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation[C].New York,NY,USA:IEEE,2005.2381-2386.
[30] Geng T,Porr B,Worgotter F.Fast biped walking with a sensordriven neuronal controller and real-time online learning[J].The International Journal of Robotics Research,2006,25(3):243-259.